Crosstransmission of human and animal Onchocerca parasites
In Northern Cameroon, Simulium damnosum s.l. flies transmit at least three different Onchocerca parasites from man (O. volvulus, savanna strain), cattle (O. ochengi – O. dukei is transmitted by Simulium bovis in the same area) and warthog (O. ramachandrini).

Cross-transmission cycles of human and animal Onchocerca spp. by Simulium damnosum s.l. in North Cameroon (A. Renz)
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